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  • Prediction of adult height in girls: the Beunen-MalinaFreitas method
    Publication . Beunen, Gaston Prudence; Malina, Robert M.; Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Thomis, Martine Ann; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Claessens, Albrecht Leo; Gouveia, Elvio R.; Maes, Hermine H.; Lefevre, Johan Aimé
    The purpose of this study was to validate and cross-validate the Beunen-Malina-Freitas method for non-invasive prediction of adult height in girls. A sample of 420 girls aged 10–15 years from the Madeira Growth Study were measured at yearly intervals and then 8 years later. Anthropometric dimensions (lengths, breadths, circumferences, and skinfolds) were measured; skeletal age was assessed using the Tanner-Whitehouse 3 method and menarcheal status (present or absent) was recorded. Adult height was measured and predicted using stepwise, forward, and maximum R2 regression techniques. Multiple correlations, mean differences, standard errors of prediction, and error boundaries were calculated. A sample of the Leuven Longitudinal Twin Study was used to cross-validate the regressions. Age-specific coefficients of determination (R2) between predicted and measured adult height varied between 0.57 and 0.96, while standard errors of prediction varied between 1.1 and 3.9 cm. The cross-validation confirmed the validity of the Beunen-Malina-Freitas method in girls aged 12–15 years, but at lower ages the cross-validation was less consistent. We conclude that the Beunen-Malina-Freitas method is valid for the prediction of adult height in girls aged 12–15 years. It is applicable to European populations or populations of European ancestry.
  • Skeletal maturation, fundamental motor skills, and motor performance in preschool children
    Publication . Freitas, D. L.; Lausen, B.; Maia, J. A.; Gouveia, É. R.; Antunes, A. M.; Thomis, M.; Lefevre, J.; Malina, R. M.
    Relationships among skeletal age (SA), body size and fundamental motor skills (FMS) and motor performance were considered in 155 boys and 159 girls 3-6 years of age. Stature and body mass were measured. SA of the hand-wrist was assessed with the Tanner-Whitehouse II 20 bone method. The Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd edition (TGMD-2), and the Preschool Test Battery were used, respectively, to assess FMS and motor performance. Based on hierarchical regression analyses, the standardized residuals of SA on chronological age (SAsr) explained a maximum of 6.1% of the variance in FMS and motor performance in boys (ΔR23 , range 0.0%-6.1%) and a maximum of 20.4% of the variance in girls (ΔR23 , range 0.0%-20.4%) over that explained by body size and interactions of SAsr with body size (step 3). The interactions of the SAsr and stature and body mass (step 2) explained a maximum of 28.3% of the variance in boys (ΔR22 , range 0.5%-28.3%) and 16.7% of the variance in girls (ΔR22 , range 0.7%-16.7%) over that explained by body size alone. With the exception of balance, relationships among SAsr and FMS or motor performance differed between boys and girls. Overall, SA per se or interacting with body size had a relatively small influence in FMS and motor performance in children 3-6 years of age.
  • Associação do envolvimento à actividade física e à aptidão em jovens madeirenses
    Publication . Ramos, Elisa Cristina Abreu Viúla; Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Beunen, Gaston Prudence; Claessens, Albrecht Leo; Gouveia, Élvio R.; Marques, António T.; Thomis, Martine Ann; Lefevre, Johan Aimé
    O objectivo central do presente estudo consistiu em investigar a associação do meio (urbano, semi-urbano e rural) à actividade física e à aptidão na criança e no adolescente madeirense. A amostra foi constituída por 1498 sujeitos, 758 rapazes e 740 raparigas, que participaram no ‘Estudo de Crescimento da Madeira’. A actividade física e a aptidão foram avaliadas através do questionário de Baecke e da bateria de testes motores Eurofit, respectivamente. As crianças e adolescentes madeirenses do meio urbano apresentaram valores mais elevados de prática regular e sistemática de um ou mais desportos. Os resultados para as componentes da aptidão física não favorecem um único meio sócio-geográfico. Os rapazes do meio urbano e/ou semi-urbano foram mais proficientes na flexibilidade, força e resistência muscular, e potência, enquanto os rapazes rurais apresentaram melhores resultados na resistência aeróbia, força estática, e velocidade/agilidade. As raparigas do meio urbano e/ou semiurbano apresentaram melhores resultados na velocidade/agilidade, enquanto as raparigas do meio rural foram mais proficientes na força estática e na força e resistência muscular. A eliminação dos diferenciais negativos na actividade física e na aptidão associados ao meio sócio-geográfico irá resultar numa melhor saúde das crianças e adolescentes madeirenses.
  • Skeletal maturation, fundamental motor skills and motor coordination in children 7–10 years
    Publication . Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Lausen, Berthold; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Lefevre, Johan Aimé; Gouveia, Élvio Rúbio; Thomis, Martine Ann; Antunes, António Manuel; Claessens, Albrecht Leo; Beunen, Gaston Prudence; Malina, Robert M.
  • Genetic regulation of body size and morphology in children: a twin study of 22 anthropometric traits
    Publication . Silventoinen, Karri; Maia, José; Li, Weilong; Sund, Reijo; Gouveia, Élvio R.; Antunes, António; Marques, Gonçalo; Thomis, Martine; Jelenkovic, Aline; Kaprio, Jaakko; Freitas, Duarte Luís de
    Anthropometric measures show high heritability, and genetic correlations have been found between obesity related traits. However, we lack a comprehensive analysis of the genetic background of human body morphology using detailed anthropometric measures. METHODS: Height, weight, 7 skinfold thicknesses, 7 body circumferences and 4 body diameters (skeletal breaths) were measured in 214 pairs of twin children aged 3–18 years (87 monozygotic pairs) in the Autonomous Region of Madeira, Portugal. Factor analysis (Varimax rotation) was used to analyze the underlying structure of body physique. Genetic twin modeling was used to estimate genetic and environmental contributions to the variation and co-variation of the anthropometric traits. RESULTS: Together, two factors explained 80% of the variation of all 22 anthropometric traits in boys and 73% in girls. Obesity measures (body mass index, skinfold thickness measures, as well as waist and hip circumferences) and limb circumferences loaded most strongly on the first factor, whereas height and body diameters loaded especially on the second factor. These factors as well as all anthropometric measures showed high heritability (80% or more for most of the traits), whereas the rest of the variation was explained by environmental factors not shared by co-twins. Obesity measures showed high genetic correlations (0.75–0.98). Height showed the highest genetic correlations with body diameter measures (0.58–0.76). Correlations between environmental factors not shared by co-twins were weaker than the genetic correlations but still substantial. The correlation patterns were roughly similar in boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show high genetic correlations underlying the human body physique, suggesting that there are sets of genes widely affecting anthropometric traits. Better knowledge of these genetic variants can help to understand the development of obesity and other features of the human physique.
  • Gross motor coordination and weight status of Portuguese children aged 6-14 years
    Publication . Antunes, António M.; Maia, José A.; Stasinopoulos, Mikis D.; Gouveia, Élvio R.; Thomis, Martine A.; Lefevre, Johan A.; Teixeira, Alexandra Q.; Freitas, Duarte L.
    Objectives: To construct age- and gender-specific percentiles for gross motor coordination (MC) tests and to explore differences in gross MC in normal-weight, overweight and obese children. Methods: Data are from the “Healthy Growth of Madeira Study,” a cross-sectional study carried out in children, aged 6–14 years. All 1,276 participants, 619 boys and 657 girls, were assessed for gross MC (K€orperkoordinations Test fur Kinder, KTK), anthropometry (height and body mass), physical activity (Baecke questionnaire) and socioeconomic € status (SES). Centile curves for gross MC were obtained for boys and girls separately using generalized additive models for location, scale and shape. Results: A significant main effect for age was found in walking backwards and moving sideways. Boys performed significantly better than girls on moving sideways. At the upper limit of the distributions, interindividual variability was higher in hopping on one leg (girls) and jumping and moving sideways (boys and girls). One-way ANCOVA, control ling for age, physical activity and SES, indicated that normal-weight children scored significantly better than their obese peers in all gross MC tests. Overweight boys and girls also scored significantly better than their obese colleagues in some MC tests. Conclusions: These centile curves can be used as reference data in Portuguese children and youth, aged 6–14 years. Being overweight or obese was a major limitation in MC tests and, therefore, of the children’s health- and performance related physical fitness.
  • Short-term secular change in height, body mass and Tanner-Whitehouse 3 skeletal maturity of Madeira youth, Portugal
    Publication . Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Malina, Robert M.; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Lefevre, Johan Aimé; Stasinopoulos, Mikis; Gouveia, Élvio; Claessens, Albrecht Leo; Thomis, Martine Ann; Lausen, Berthold
    Secular trends in height and weight are reasonably well documented in Europe. Corresponding observations for skeletal maturation are lacking. Aim: To assess secular trends in height, body mass and skeletal maturity of Portuguese children and adolescents and to provide updated reference values for skeletal maturity scores (SMSs). Subjects and methods: Data for 2856 children and adolescents of 4–17 years, 1412 boys and 1444 girls, from The ‘Madeira Growth Study’ (MGS; 1996–1998) and from the‘Healthy Growth of Madeira Children Study’ (CRES; 2006) were used. Height and body mass were measured. Skeletal maturity was assessed with the Tanner-Whitehouse 2 and 3 methods. Results: Children from CRES were taller and heavier than peers from MGS. Differences in height reached 5.8cm in boys and 5.5cm in girls. RUS SMSs did not differ consistently between surveys boys, while higher RUS scores were observed in CRES girls. Adult RUS SMSs for MGS and CRES combined were attained at 15.8 years in boys and 14.8 years in girls. Corresponding ages for adult Carpal SMSs were 14.4 and 14.0, respectively. Conclusion: The short-term trends for height and mass were not entirely consistent with the trends in RUS and Carpal SMSs and SAs.
  • Socio-economic status, growth, physical activity and fitness: the Madeira growth study
    Publication . Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Beunen, Gaston Prudence; Claessens, Albrecht Leo; Thomis, Martine Ann; Marques, António; Crespo, Maria; Lefevre, Johan Aimé
    Within a country social conditions change over time and these conditions vary from country to country. The associations between these conditions, somatic growth, physical activity and fitness reflect these changes. Aim: The study documented variation in somatic growth, physical activity and fitness associated with socio-economic status (SES). Subjects and methods: The study involved 507 subjects (256 boys and 251 girls) from the Madeira Growth Study, a mixed longitudinal study of five cohorts (8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 years of age) followed at yearly intervals over 3 years (1996–1998). A total of 1493 observations were made. Anthropometric measurements included lengths, body mass, skeletal breadths, girths and skinfolds. Physical activity and SES were collected via questionnaire and interview. Physical fitness was assessed using the Eurofit test battery. Variation in somatic growth, physical activity and physical fitness by SES (high, average and low) was tested with analysis of variance. Results: Significant differences between SES groups were observed for height, body mass and skinfolds. Boys and girls from high SES groups were taller, heavier and fatter (subscapular and triceps skinfolds) than their peers from average and low SES groups. At some age intervals, the high SES group had larger skeletal breadths (girls) and girths (boys and girls) than low SES. Small SES differences were observed for physical activity (sport and leisure-time indices). SES was significantly associated with physical fitness. At some age levels, boys from the low SES group performed better for muscular and aerobic endurance whereas girls from the high SES group performed better for power. Conclusion: Considerable variation in somatic growth and physical fitness in association with SES has been demonstrated, but little association was found for physical activity.
  • Physical activity, physical fitness, gross motor coordination, and metabolic syndrome: focus of twin research in Portugal
    Publication . Maia, José António Ribeiro; Santos, Daniel; Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Thomis, Martine
    A very brief history of Portuguese twin research in sport and human movement sciences is presented. Recruitment procedures, zygosity determination, and phenotypes are given for twins and their parents from the mainland, and Azores and Madeira archipelagos. Preliminary findings are mostly related to physical activity, health-related physical fitness, gross motor coordination, neuromotor development, and metabolic syndrome traits.
  • Skeletal maturity and socio-economic status in portuguese children and youths: the Madeira growth study
    Publication . Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Beunen, Gaston Prudence; Lefevre, Johan Aimé; Claessens, Albrecht Leo; Marques, A.; Rodrigues, A.; Silva, C.; Crespo, Maria; Thomis, Martine Ann; Sousa, A.; Malina, Robert M.
    Skeletal maturity is used to evaluate biological maturity status. Information about the association between socio-economic status (SES) and skeletal maturity is limited in Portugal. Aims: The aim of this study is to document the skeletal maturity of youths in Madeira and to evaluate variation in maturity associated with SES. Subjects and methods: The study involved 507 subjects (256 boys and 251 girls) from the Madeira Growth Study, a mixed-longitudinal study of five cohorts (8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 years of age) followed at yearly intervals over 3 years (1996–1998). A total of 1493 observations were made. Skeletal age was estimated from radiographs of the hand and wrist using the Tanner–Whitehouse 2 method (TW2). Social class rankings were based on Graffar’s (1956) method. Five social rankings were subsequently grouped into three SES categories: high, average and low. Results: Median for the radius, ulna and short finger bones (RUS scores) in the total sample of boys and girls increased curvilinearly across age whereas median for the 7 (without pisiform) carpal bones (Carpal scores) increased almost linearly. The 20-bone maturity scores demonstrated distinctive trends by gender: the medians for boys increased almost linearly while the medians for girls increased curvilinearly. SES differences were minimal. Only among children aged 10–11 years were high SES boys and girls advanced in skeletal maturity. Madeira adolescents were advanced in skeletal maturity compared with Belgian reference values. Conclusion: The data suggests population variation in TW2 estimates of skeletal maturation. Skeletal maturity was not related to SES in youths from Madeira.