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- Crescimento somático e desempenho motor: um estudo com crianças da Região Autónoma da MadeiraPublication . Antunes, António Manuel Marques; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Freitas, Duarte Luís deOs propósitos deste estudo foram os seguintes: (1) caracterizar a altura, o peso, a altura sentado e o índice de massa corporal (IMC); (2) construir tabelas e cartas centílicas das variáveis anteriormente referidas; (3) estimar as prevalências de sobrepeso e de obesidade; (4) apresentar dados descritivos da performance motora em ambos os sexos; (5) testar a hipótese da diferença de desempenho motor entre meninos e meninas e em função da idade; (6) identificar os testes, numa análise multivariada, que mais distinguem a performance de raparigas e rapazes; (7) estudar o efeito da adiposidade e actividade física numa medida compósita do desempenho motor; (8) comparar os valores médios das meninas e meninos da RAM com os das crianças dos Estados Unidos da América (EUA) e (9) apresentar cartas centílicas para idade e sexo. A amostra estratificada proporcional proveniente de 37 instituições escolares envolveu 836 alunos (417 raparigas e 419 rapazes) dos 3 aos 10 anos de idade que são parte integrante do projecto “Crescer com Saúde na RAM” (CRES). As medidas somáticas consideradas foram avaliadas de acordo com o protocolo do estudo de Crescimento de Lovaina (Bélgica) que segue as directrizes do Programa Biológico Internacional. O desempenho motor foi avaliado com a bateria de testes “Preschool Test Battery” (PTB). As diferentes análises estatísticas foram realizadas no SPSS 15 e Excel, sendo que α=5%.Verificaram-se incrementos significativos nas médias da estatura, peso, altura sentado e IMC, sem que haja diferenças sexuais acentuadas. A prevalência de sobrepeso foi, respectivamente, de 16.1% e 14.6% nas raparigas e rapazes; na obesidade os valores foram 7.7% e 8.8%. Relativamente ao desempenho motor, em ambos os sexos e ao longo da idade, é claro um aumento significativo nos valores médios da performance, sendo evidente a presença de dimorfismo sexual favorecendo os rapazes. Níveis mais elevados de adiposidade reflectem-se negativamente no desempenho motor, sendo que tal tendência não é tão evidente com os níveis de actividade física. As principais conclusões são as seguintes: (1) o crescimento é o esperado em condições socio-económicas favoráveis que a RAM vive; (2) há uma forte variabilidade inter-individual que reclama uma atenção cuidada por parte dos educadores; (3) não se verificam diferenças substanciais entre sexos que exijam uma atenção particular; (4) as prevalências de sobrepeso e obesidade impelem a um serviço de maior vigilância epidemiológica, maiores cuidados nos hábitos nutricionais, bem como a incrementos bem relevantes nos hábitos de actividade física e desportiva das crianças. Para finalizar, o desempenho permite as seguintes ilações: (5) é claro o incremento da performance em função da idade favorecendo os meninos; (6) a adiposidade tem um efeito negativo na performance que reclama uma atenção mais adequada dos educadores e progenitores; (7) o facto de não haver um efeito significativo da actividade física no desempenho motor pode dever-se a problemas com o instrumento utilizado; neste sentido sugerem-se outras abordagens, não esquecendo nunca os efeitos inequívocos e salutares dos níveis moderados e elevados no bem-estar e performance; (8) o facto das crianças da RAM terem desempenhos inferiores às dos EUA exige uma atenção adequada dos professores de Educação Física.
- Skeletal maturation, fundamental motor skills, and motor performance in preschool childrenPublication . Freitas, D. L.; Lausen, B.; Maia, J. A.; Gouveia, É. R.; Antunes, A. M.; Thomis, M.; Lefevre, J.; Malina, R. M.Relationships among skeletal age (SA), body size and fundamental motor skills (FMS) and motor performance were considered in 155 boys and 159 girls 3-6 years of age. Stature and body mass were measured. SA of the hand-wrist was assessed with the Tanner-Whitehouse II 20 bone method. The Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd edition (TGMD-2), and the Preschool Test Battery were used, respectively, to assess FMS and motor performance. Based on hierarchical regression analyses, the standardized residuals of SA on chronological age (SAsr) explained a maximum of 6.1% of the variance in FMS and motor performance in boys (ΔR23 , range 0.0%-6.1%) and a maximum of 20.4% of the variance in girls (ΔR23 , range 0.0%-20.4%) over that explained by body size and interactions of SAsr with body size (step 3). The interactions of the SAsr and stature and body mass (step 2) explained a maximum of 28.3% of the variance in boys (ΔR22 , range 0.5%-28.3%) and 16.7% of the variance in girls (ΔR22 , range 0.7%-16.7%) over that explained by body size alone. With the exception of balance, relationships among SAsr and FMS or motor performance differed between boys and girls. Overall, SA per se or interacting with body size had a relatively small influence in FMS and motor performance in children 3-6 years of age.
- Skeletal maturation, fundamental motor skills and motor coordination in children 7–10 yearsPublication . Freitas, Duarte Luís de; Lausen, Berthold; Maia, José António Ribeiro; Lefevre, Johan Aimé; Gouveia, Élvio Rúbio; Thomis, Martine Ann; Antunes, António Manuel; Claessens, Albrecht Leo; Beunen, Gaston Prudence; Malina, Robert M.
- Genetic regulation of body size and morphology in children: a twin study of 22 anthropometric traitsPublication . Silventoinen, Karri; Maia, José; Li, Weilong; Sund, Reijo; Gouveia, Élvio R.; Antunes, António; Marques, Gonçalo; Thomis, Martine; Jelenkovic, Aline; Kaprio, Jaakko; Freitas, Duarte Luís deAnthropometric measures show high heritability, and genetic correlations have been found between obesity related traits. However, we lack a comprehensive analysis of the genetic background of human body morphology using detailed anthropometric measures. METHODS: Height, weight, 7 skinfold thicknesses, 7 body circumferences and 4 body diameters (skeletal breaths) were measured in 214 pairs of twin children aged 3–18 years (87 monozygotic pairs) in the Autonomous Region of Madeira, Portugal. Factor analysis (Varimax rotation) was used to analyze the underlying structure of body physique. Genetic twin modeling was used to estimate genetic and environmental contributions to the variation and co-variation of the anthropometric traits. RESULTS: Together, two factors explained 80% of the variation of all 22 anthropometric traits in boys and 73% in girls. Obesity measures (body mass index, skinfold thickness measures, as well as waist and hip circumferences) and limb circumferences loaded most strongly on the first factor, whereas height and body diameters loaded especially on the second factor. These factors as well as all anthropometric measures showed high heritability (80% or more for most of the traits), whereas the rest of the variation was explained by environmental factors not shared by co-twins. Obesity measures showed high genetic correlations (0.75–0.98). Height showed the highest genetic correlations with body diameter measures (0.58–0.76). Correlations between environmental factors not shared by co-twins were weaker than the genetic correlations but still substantial. The correlation patterns were roughly similar in boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show high genetic correlations underlying the human body physique, suggesting that there are sets of genes widely affecting anthropometric traits. Better knowledge of these genetic variants can help to understand the development of obesity and other features of the human physique.
- Gross motor coordination and weight status of Portuguese children aged 6-14 yearsPublication . Antunes, António M.; Maia, José A.; Stasinopoulos, Mikis D.; Gouveia, Élvio R.; Thomis, Martine A.; Lefevre, Johan A.; Teixeira, Alexandra Q.; Freitas, Duarte L.Objectives: To construct age- and gender-specific percentiles for gross motor coordination (MC) tests and to explore differences in gross MC in normal-weight, overweight and obese children. Methods: Data are from the “Healthy Growth of Madeira Study,” a cross-sectional study carried out in children, aged 6–14 years. All 1,276 participants, 619 boys and 657 girls, were assessed for gross MC (K€orperkoordinations Test fur Kinder, KTK), anthropometry (height and body mass), physical activity (Baecke questionnaire) and socioeconomic € status (SES). Centile curves for gross MC were obtained for boys and girls separately using generalized additive models for location, scale and shape. Results: A significant main effect for age was found in walking backwards and moving sideways. Boys performed significantly better than girls on moving sideways. At the upper limit of the distributions, interindividual variability was higher in hopping on one leg (girls) and jumping and moving sideways (boys and girls). One-way ANCOVA, control ling for age, physical activity and SES, indicated that normal-weight children scored significantly better than their obese peers in all gross MC tests. Overweight boys and girls also scored significantly better than their obese colleagues in some MC tests. Conclusions: These centile curves can be used as reference data in Portuguese children and youth, aged 6–14 years. Being overweight or obese was a major limitation in MC tests and, therefore, of the children’s health- and performance related physical fitness.
- Crescimento somático e desempenho motor de crianças madeirenses do pré-escolarPublication . Antunes, António Manuel; Sousa, Rui; Osório, Rui; Lopes, Sérgio; Bessa, Hugo; Valério, Bernardo; Estanqueiro, João; Gouveia, Elvio; Marques, Gonçalo; Freitas, DuarteO objetivo foi investigar o dimorfismo sexual, a estabilidade e a mudança no crescimento somático e desempenho motor em crianças dos 3 aos 5 anos. A amostra foi composta por 55 (23 raparigas e 32 rapazes) alunos do Colégio do Marítimo. O crescimento, através do peso, altura e perímetro de cintura, foi aferido seguindo o protocolo descrito no The Leuven Growth Study. O desem penho motor foi avaliado através da Preschool Test Battery. A avaliação reali zou-se em 2 anos letivos consecutivos. O teste Mann-Whitney, a correlação de Spearman e o Wilcoxon signed rank test foram utilizados na análise. A altura revelou diferenças (U= 230,0; W= 819,0; p= 0,03) entre meninas (Md= 107,70) e meninos (Md= 104,40) no 1º ano, bem como um ano mais tarde. As meninas apresentaram valores medianos estaturais (Md= 112,10) superiores aos meninos (Md= 108,10). No desempenho motor, observaram se diferenças com significado estatístico no lançamento da bola de ténis nos dois momentos de avaliação. Os meninos (Md= 5,01) lançaram distâncias superiores às meninas (Md= 3,79), nos 1º e 2º momentos de avaliação (Md= 5,74 e Md= 4,71, respetivamente). A altura, nas raparigas, foi a variável que revelou maior estabilidade da 1ª para a 2ª avaliação (rho= 0,98). No desem penho motor, as correlações mais elevadas foram observadas na corrida de ida-e-volta para as meninas (rho> 0,85) e na corrida de velocidade para os meninos (rho> 0,83). A maior expressão na mudança foi observada no peso corporal, nas meninas (Z= -2,37; p= 0,018). Os scores medianos aumentaram dos 3 (Md= 15,40) para os 4 anos (Md= 17,40). Resultados similares foram observados na altura. No desempenho motor foram observadas melhorias estatisticamente significativas na quase totalidade dos testes. Exceções foram observadas na impulsão horizontal (Z= -1,86, p= 0,077; meninas), corrida de velocidade (Z= -1,83, p= 0,068; meninos) e lançamento da bola de ténis (Z= -1,85, p= 0,064; meninos). As diferenças entre sexos no crescimento somático e desempenho motor estão presentes em idade pré-escolar. A estabilidade foi elevada nas variáveis somáticas e melhorias no desempenho motor foram mais evidentes dos 4 para os 5 anos.
- Genetics of somatotype and physical fitness in children and adolescentsPublication . Silventoinen, Karri; Maia, José; Jelenkovic, Aline; Pereira, Sara; Gouveia, Élvio; Antunes, António; Thomis, Martine; Lefevre, Johan; Kaprio, Jaakko; Freitas, DuarteObjectives: To analyze the influence of genetic and environmental factors on the variation in somatotype, physical fitness, and their mutual associations. Methods: Twins from 214 pairs (87 monozygotic) of the Autonomous Region of Madeira, Portugal, from 3 to 18 years of age (51% girls) were assessed in anthropometry and physical fitness tests. We estimated endomorphy, meso morphy, and ectomorphy based on anthropometric measures and physical fit ness using the Eurofit test battery. Two age categories were analyzed: children (3-11 years) and adolescents (12-18 years). Genetic and environmental varia tions were estimated using quantitative genetic twin modeling. Results: No genetic sex differences were found, thus boys and girls were pooled in all genetic analyses. Heritability estimates were high for somatotype (a2 = 0.80-0.93), physical fitness traits (a2 = 0.67-0.83), and largely similar in children and adolescents. Positive correlations were found for ectomorphy with motor ability and cardiorespiratory endurance as well as for endomorphy and mesomorphy with muscular strength (r = 0.25-0.37). In contrast, negative asso ciations were found for ectomorphy with muscular strength, as well as for endomorphy and mesomorphy with motor ability and cardiorespiratory endurance (−0.46 to −0.26). Twin modeling indicated that these associations were explained mostly by genetic factors in common to the two associated traits (84% or more). Conclusions: Associations between somatotype and physical fitness tests are mainly explained by common genetic background in children and adolescents. Therefore, interventions in youth should consider that a child's performance in physical fitness tests partly reflects their inherited physique.
- The relation of education and cognitive activity to mini‑mental state in old age: the role of functional fitness statusPublication . Ihle, Andreas; Gouveia, Élvio R.; Gouveia, Bruna R.; Freitas, Duarte L.; Jurema, Jefferson; Ornelas, Rui T.; Antunes, António M.; Muniz, Bárbara R.; Kliegel, MatthiasIt remains unclear so far whether the role of cognitive reserve for cognitive functioning in old age may differ between individuals with low, compared to those with high functional fitness status. Therefore, the present study set out to investigate the relation of education and cognitive leisure activity as key markers of cognitive reserve to mini-mental state in old age (as an indicator of the extent of cognitive impairment) and its interplay with functional fitness status in a large sample of older adults. We assessed MMSE in 701 older adults (M = 70.4 years, SD = 6.9, range: 60–91). We measured functional fitness status using the Senior Fitness Test battery and interviewed individuals on their education and cognitive leisure activity. Results showed that better functional fitness status, longer education, and greater engagement in cognitive leisure activity were significantly related to higher MMSE scores. Moderation analyses showed that the relations of education and cognitive leisure activity to MMSE scores were significantly larger in individuals with low, compared to those with high functional fitness status. In conclusion, cognitive functioning in old age may more strongly depend on cognitive reserve accumulated during the life course in older adults with low, compared to those with high functional fitness status. These findings may be explained by cross-domain compensation effects in vulnerable individuals and may (at least partly) account for the large variability in cognitive reserve–cognition relations debated in the literature.
- The relationship of physical activity to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level in a sample of community-dwelling older adults from Amazonas, BrazilPublication . Gouveia, Élvio R.; Ihle, Andreas; Kliegel, Matthias; Freitas, Duarte L.; Jurema, Jefferson; Tinôco, Maria A.; Odim, Angeany; Machado, Floramara T.; Muniz, Bárbara R.; Antunes, António M.; Ornelas, Rui T.; Gouveia, Bruna R.Objectives: (1) To study the relation of physical activity (PA) to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and (2) to investigate if the strength of these associations holds after adjustments for sex, age, and other key correlates. Methods: This study included 550 older adults from Amazonas. HDL-C was derived from fasting blood samples. PA at sport and leisure, smoking, alcohol consumption, and socioeconomic status (SES) were interviewed. Waist circumference (WACI) was assessed. Results: HDL-C was positively related to PA sport, PA leisure, and SES (0.22 ≤ r ≤ 0.34; p ≤ 0.001) and negatively related to smoking and WACI (r ≤−0.10; p < 0.05). Controlling for sex and age did not affect these relationships. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that the relation of HDL-C to PA sport and leisure remainedsignificantwhencontrolling forallotherinvestigatedcorrelates (0.14 ≤β≤ 0.24;p ≤ 0.001). Discussion: In order to prevent low HDL-C in older adults, promoting PA seems to be an important additional component besides common recommendations concerning weight reduction.
- The genetic background of metabolic trait clusters in children and adolescentsPublication . Silventoinen, Karri; Gouveia, Élvio; Jelenkovic, Aline; Maia, José; Antunes, António M.; Carvalho, Miguel Â. A. Pinheiro de; Brehm, António M.; Thomis, Martine; Lefevre, Johan; Kaprio, Jaakko; Freitas, DuarteBackground: It is well known that the metabolic risk factors of cardiovascular diseases are correlated, but the background of this clustering in children is more poorly known than in adults. Thus, we studied the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to the clustering of metabolic traits in childhood and adolescence. Methods: Nine metabolic traits were measured in 214 complete twin pairs aged 3 to 18 years in the Autonomous Region of Madeira, Portugal, in 2007 and 2008. The variation of and covariations between the traits were decomposed into genetic and environmental components by using classical genetic twin modeling. Results: A model including additive genetic and environmental factors unique for each twin individual explained the variation of the metabolic factors well. Under this model, the heritability estimates varied from 0.47 (systolic blood pressure in children under 12 years of age) to 0.91 (HDL cholesterol in adolescents 12 years of age or older). The most systematic correlations were found between adiposity (body mass index and waist circumference) and blood lipids (HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides), as well as blood pressure. These correlations were mainly explained by common genetic factors. Conclusions: Our results suggest that obesity, in particular, is behind the clustering of metabolic factors in children and adolescents. Both general and abdominal obesity partly share the same genetic background as blood lipids and blood pressure. Obesity prevention already in childhood is important in reducing the risk of metabolic diseases in adulthood.